Mostrando postagens com marcador Prion. Mostrar todas as postagens
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sexta-feira, 12 de novembro de 2010

Micróbios sem DNA?


Sergio Pena explica como age o príon – proteína infecciosa por trás do mal da vaca louca e de outras doenças degenerativas – e mostra o que ele tem em comum com uma entidade química postulada em uma obra de ficção científica dos anos 1960.
Por: Sergio Danilo Pena
Publicado em 12/11/2010 | Atualizado em 12/11/2010
Micróbios sem DNA?
Representação artística da estrutura tridimensional de resíduos do príon, agente infeccioso puramente proteico – portanto, sem DNA – por trás de várias doenças neurodegenerativas (foto: Wikimedia Commons – CC 3.0 BY-SA).
Há duas semanas o presidente dos Estados Unidos Barack Obama anunciou os ganhadores da Medalha Nacional da Ciência, a maior honraria outorgada a cientistas naquele país. Dentre os agraciados deste ano está Stanley B. Prusiner (1942 -), que ganhou também o Nobel de Medicina ou Fisiologia em 1997 por sua descoberta dos príons, uma nova classe de agentes infecciosos compostos apenas de proteínas.
Como eu já tinha vagos planos de abordar a questão dos príons algum dia na Deriva Genética, vi que o momento ideal chegara. Mas decidi abordar os príons de forma lenta, recapitulando a minha própria trajetória na compreensão dessas bizarras proteínas infecciosas, agentes da encefalopatia espongiforme bovina (popularmente conhecida como “doença da vaca louca”) e de várias doenças neurogenerativas humanas.

Kurt Vonnegut Jr.

Cat's Cradle
Capa do livro ‘Cat’s cradle’ (“Cama de gato”) de Kurt Vonnegut Jr. O gelo-9, entidade química postulada na obra, tem o mesmo modo de funcionamento do príon.
Retornemos à década de 1970, quando um dos autores mais lidos nos campi universitários norte-americanos era Kurt Vonnegut Jr. (1922-2007). Ainda fazendo meu doutorado no Canadá, tive a oportunidade de ler e me encantar com seu livro Cat’s Cradle [“Cama de gato”], que havia sido publicado em 1962.
O livro tem um enredo complexo que gira em torno de uma entidade química chamada “gelo-9”. Este tem uma estrutura cristalina muito mais estável do que o gelo normal, mas derrete a 45,8ºC, em vez de  0ºC, como é usual.
Assim, caso um pequeno pedaço de gelo-9 entrasse em contato  com a água do oceano, ele iria agir instrutivamente como uma “semente” de cristal. Em pouco tempo, toda a água do oceano iria se congelar na forma cristalina estável, causando uma catástrofe global de medonhas proporções.

Canibalismo e doenças degenerativas

No cenário das terras altas orientais da Nova-Guiné, um grupo primitivo – os Fore – começou a apresentar na década de 1950 uma doença neurodegenerativa chamada por eles de kuru, que quer dizer tremor.
A doença tinha um padrão claramente familiar, com transmissão de geração em geração. Por isso, a primeira hipótese dos pesquisadores que se depararam com ela foi de que se tratava de um problema genético mendeliano. A tribo foi visitada pelo antropólogo Daniel Carleton Gajdusek (1923-2008), que iniciou uma investigação dos costumes do povo Fore, que incluíam o canibalismo ritual de membros mortos da comunidade.
Equipes médicas visitaram a região e observaram a semelhança dos sintomas e das alterações neuropatológicas do kuru com uma enfermidade rara chamada doença de Creutzfeld-Jakob, que acomete pessoas idosas. A diferença é que o kuru frequentemente afetava crianças e adolescentes, e não apenas adultos.
Mulheres com kuru
A imagem mostra quatro mulheres afetadas com uma forma avançada de kuru, necessitando de estacas de madeira para se manterem de pé. As três meninas sentadas também são afetadas (foto: Daniel Carleton Gajduzek / Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci. 363: 3636–3643, 2008).
Mais tarde Gajdusek observou também a similaridade do kuru com uma doença infecciosa transmissível de ovelhas conhecida por seu nome em inglês, scrapie (ou paraplexia enzoótica dos ovinos, na denominação técnica).
Quando os Fore deixaram de praticar o ritual de canibalismo, a doença desapareceu entre eles
Estimulado por tais observações, Gajdusek demonstrou experimentalmente a transmissão laboratorial do Kuru para primatas usando injeções cerebrais com extratos obtidos do sistema nervoso central de pacientes vitimados por essa enfermidade.
A doença foi então caracterizada como infectocontagiosa, com uma cadeia epidemiológica dependente do canibalismo. Quando os Fore deixaram de praticar o ritual, a doença desapareceu entre eles.
Gajdusek descreveu o vírus do kuru como atípico e de ação lenta. Pelo seu trabalho, ele recebeu o Nobel de Medicina ou Fisiologia em 1976.

Proteínas normais e patogênicas

Em 1972, Stanley Prusiner, um neurologista na Universidade da Califórnia em São Francisco (EUA), interessou-se pela doença Creutzfeldt-Jakob,  depois que um de seus pacientes foi vitimado por ela. Sabendo do trabalho de Gajdusek com o kuru, Prusiner dedicou-se a identificar o “vírus”, usando o método de infecção por transferência de humanos a animais.
Uma década depois, ele conseguiu purificar no cérebro de hamsters o agente infeccioso. Para surpresa de Prusiner, o mesmo mostrou-se constituído de uma única proteína e não possuía DNA! O agente foi chamado de príon, um acrônimo cunhado pelo pesquisador a partir da expressão PRotein Infection ONly (‘infecção por proteína apenas’, em português).
Para surpresa de Prusiner, o agente infeccioso era constituído de uma única proteína e não possuía DNA!
Sendo o príon apenas uma proteína, como seria ele geneticamente codificado? Usando sondas de DNA, Prusiner demonstrou que todos os mamíferos, inclusive os humanos, possuíam o gene do príon em seu genoma.
Mas como, então, explicar a capacidade infecciosa de uma proteína tão facilmente encontrável?
A solução veio quando ele verificou que a proteína, denominada PrP, era capaz de se enovelar em duas conformações distintas – a celular normal (PrPc) e a patogênica (PrPSc), mais estável, que se precipitava nos neurônios e causava a doença.
Descobriu-se então que, quando a proteína normal PrPc entrava em contato com o príon PrPSc, ela mudava de conformação e se tornava patogênica. Assim, o mecanismo infeccioso do príon é instrutivo – exatamente o modus operandi que Vonnegut havia postulado para o gelo-9! O príon era um gelo-9 de proteínas!
A partir daí, acumularam-se inúmeras evidências que demonstraram, definitivamente, a ausência de DNA e a natureza puramente proteica dos príons.
O príon tinha exatamente omodus operandique Vonnegut havia postulado para o gelo-9!
A mais importante delas foi obtida em 1992, quando foi demonstrado que camundongos que haviam sofrido deleção (knock-out) do gene normal da PrPc se tornavam resistentes aos príons infecciosos.
Entretanto, se o gene era reintroduzido, a susceptibilidade se restaurava. Curiosamente, os camundongos sem o gene da PrPc eram saudáveis, mostrando que a proteína não é indispensável para a vida normal.

Esperteza

Em 1994, eu participava de um simpósio sobre biologia molecular e doenças humanas em Miami quando, ao entrar no auditório, me deparei com Stanley Prusiner, sentado sozinho.
Achando-me muito esperto, me dirigi a ele e perguntei se ele conhecia o livro Cat’s Cradle de Kurt Vonnegut e se sabia da similaridade entre o gelo-9 e os príons. Ele olhou para mim espantado e disparou: “É claro!”. Tomei uma lição, mas pelo menos fiquei com uma estória para contar...


Paris japonica
A flor ‘Paris japonica’ tem o maior genoma conhecido, com 150 bilhões de nucleotídeos (foto: Wikimedia Commons).


A antítese do príon

O príon é um agente infeccioso que não contém DNA – consequentemente, não tem genoma! Poderíamos indagar, então, qual seria sua antítese – o organismo com o maior genoma conhecido?

No mês passado, pesquisadores descobriram uma flor japonesa bastante rara chamada Paris japonica. Ela tem um genoma de 150 bilhões de pares de base, 50 vezes maior que o genoma humano. Não deixa de ter um certo toque poético o fato de o maior genoma ser de uma flor!

Sergio Danilo Pena
Departamento de Bioquímica e Imunologia
Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais
http://cienciahoje.uol.com.br/colunas/deriva-genetica/microbios-sem-dna
Ações 

quarta-feira, 28 de julho de 2010

'Spontaneous generation' of prions observed

Metal wires 'catalyse' appearance of rogue proteins from healthy brain tissue.

vCJDPrions are implicated in conditions such as variant Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease, where brain tissue is damaged, as shown here.Teresa Hammett/CDC
After an epic series of experiments, a group of researchers has observed and reproduced what could be the spontaneous generation of prions — rogue misfolded proteins that have been implicated in the destruction of the central nervous system.
These misfolded proteins, the culprits in Creutzfeldt–Jakob disease and scrapie, are highly infectious. Although famously transmitted by the ingestion of infected meats, prions are also thought to arise spontaneously in a tiny fraction of humans and other animals. Such de novo prion generation has previously been achieved with animal cells using a method called 'protein misfolding cyclic amplification' (PMCA), which involves repeated rounds of ultrasound and incubation.
Now, a London-based team reports observing prions appearing from healthy mouse brain tissue1. (Human samples have traditionally proved less amenable to PMCA, and the misfolding of prion proteins is believed to occur at a much lower rate in humans than in mice.)
"What we were doing was trying to develop a very sensitive assay for prion detection on a metal surface, so we could use that in prion decontamination," says co-author John Collinge, who heads up the Department of Neurodegenerative Disease at University College London.
"It took a while before we could convince ourselves this was a real phenomenon."

Sticky steel

Prions readily bind to steel wires, which can thus be used to detect the presence of prions, as well as to infect brains in laboratory studies. Collinge suggests that the metal surface in the team's experiments somehow catalysed the formation of prions.
While working on a mouse version of scrapie in Collinge's lab, the researchers found that some wires coated with uninfected mouse brain, intended to serve as controls, tested positive. Eventually, they concluded that this was not an error or a result of contamination.
In a typical experiment, they report, wires were placed with brain homogenate from either uninfected mouse brains or brains infected with scrapie prions. Out of 16 experiments, 9 had controls that were positive for prions. In total, 40 of 2,268 wells on test plates were positive.
The authors even went to the precaution of repeating the study in another laboratory that had never been used for prion work. They purchased new equipment and had it shipped directly to the site to avoid any risk of contamination. Despite this, healthy, uninfected brain cells still tested positive for prions at low rates.
"We can reproduce in a system in a lab what people believe is happening in animals and humans," says co-author Charles Weissmann, who is currently studying prion biology at Scripps Florida in Jupiter.
"In the beginning it was pretty hard to believe. We spent years repeating the experiment under more and more strenuous circumstances."
Crucially, when transferred to mice, the new prions caused disease with different characteristics from that produced by the scrapie prions normally used in the laboratory.
"Indeed, the histopathology associated with 'spontaneous prions' was unlike any seen previously in our laboratory," the paper notes. "The distinctive histopathological pattern elicited by the spontaneous prions excludes contamination with RML [Rocky Mountain Laboratory] or other mouse-adapted scrapie strains used by us as a cause for these mouse transmissions."

What's the alternative?

There is an alternative explanation to that of spontaneous generation.
Prions are believed to be a polymer of misfolded proteins. Collinge says that nascent 'seeds' of prions might be forming and being destroyed in brains all the time. The metal wire could have the effect of concentrating seeds, thus increasing the rate at which prions form.
"What will be important now will be distinguishing whether this low abundance does exist, or whether the process induces the spontaneous generation of prions," says Claudio Soto, an expert in neurodegenerative disorders at the University of Texas Medical Branch in Galveston who was not involved in the work.
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Soto's team pioneered the PMCA method — initially as a way of detecting prions, but later as a potential way of generating them. "It seems to me the possibility normal tissues have a low abundance of prions is quite feasible," Soto says.
Distinguishing between these two possibilities is the crucial next step. If pre-existing prions are being concentrated on the steel wires, the rate at which this happens should be directly proportional to the concentration of the brain material. More brain equals more seed prions. Conversely, genuine spontaneous generation would be a higher-order function of concentration, the authors note2. 
  • References

    1. Edgeworth, J. A. et al. Proc. Natl Acad. Sci. USAdoi:10.1073/pnas.1004036107 (2010).
    2. Eigen, M. Biophys. Chem. 10, A1-A18 (1996).

quinta-feira, 24 de junho de 2010

Accumulation of L-type Bovine Prions in Peripheral Nerve Tissues

Emerging Infectious Diseases

Volume 16, Number 7–July 2010

Yoshifumi Iwamaru, Comments to Author Morikazu Imamura, Yuichi Matsuura, Kentaro Masujin, Yoshihisa Shimizu, Yujing Shu, Megumi Kurachi, Kazuo Kasai, Yuichi Murayama, Shigeo Fukuda, Sadao Onoe, Ken'ichi Hagiwara, Yoshio Yamakawa, Tetsutaro Sata, Shirou Mohri, Hiroyuki Okada, and Takashi Yokoyama

Author affiliations: National Institute of Animal Health, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan (Y. Iwamaru, M. Imamura, Y. Matsuura, K. Masujin, Y. Shimizu, Y. Shu, M. Kurachi, K. Kasai, Y. Murayama, S. Mohri, H. Okada, T. Yokoyama); Hokkaido Animal Research Center, Hokkaido, Japan (S. Fukuda, S. Onoe); and National Institute of Infectious Diseases, Tokyo, Japan (K. Hagiwara, Y. Yamakawa, T. Sata)
Abstract
We recently reported the intraspecies transmission of L-type atypical bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE). To clarify the peripheral pathogenesis of L-type BSE, we studied prion distribution in nerve and lymphoid tissues obtained from experimentally challenged cattle. As with classical BSE prions, L-type BSE prions accumulated in central and peripheral nerve tissues.
Bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE) is a fatal neurodegenerative disorder of cattle characterized by accumulation of a protease-resistant form of a normal cellular prion protein (PrPres) in the central nervous system. The scientific literature in general has assumed that BSE in cattle is caused by a uniform strain (classical BSE). However, different neuropathologic and molecular phenotypes of BSE (atypical BSEs) have recently been reported from various countries (1). Recent data from Western blot analyses of field cases of atypical BSEs are characterized by a higher (H-type BSE) or lower (L-type BSE) molecular mass of the unglycosylated form of PrPres than is classical BSE (2). The origins of atypical BSEs remain obscure; unlike classical BSE, atypical BSE has been detected mainly in aged cattle and suggested a as possible sporadic form of BSE (3).
Several lines of evidence demonstrate that classical BSE and a variant form of Creutzfeldt-Jacob disease are most likely caused by the same agent (4,5). Transmission of classical BSE to humans has been proposed to result from ingestion of contaminated food. Whether atypical BSEs are transmissible to humans remains uncertain; however, human susceptibility to L-type BSEs is suggested by recent experimental transmission in primates (6) and mice transgenic for human prion protein (PrP) (7) by using the most effective route of intracerebral inoculations of prions. The L-type BSE prion is much more virulent in primates and in humanized mice than is the classical BSE prion, which suggests the possibility of zoonotic risk associated with the L-type BSE prion. These findings emphasize the critical importance of understanding tissue distribution of L-type BSE prions in cattle because, among the current administrative measures for BSE controls, the specified risk materials removal policy plays a crucial role in consumer protection.
In Japan, atypical BSE was detected in an aged Japanese Black cow (BSE/JP24) (8). We recently reported the successful transmission of BSE/JP24 prions to cattle and showed that the characteristics of these prions closely resemble those of L-type BSE prions found in Italy (9). In this study, we report the peripheral distribution of L-type BSE prions in experimentally challenged cattle.

The Study

The Animal Ethics Committee and Animal Care and Use Committee of the National Institute of Animal Health approved the study. Five Holstein calves 2–3 months of age were intracerebrally injected with 1 mL of 10% (w/v) brain homogenates prepared from the medulla oblongata of BSE/JP24. In our earlier report, experimentally challenged cattle appeared to display clinical signs indicative of BSE at 11 months postinoculation (mpi) (9). Animals were sequentially euthanized before and after the onset of clinical signs (cattle identification codes 8515 and 496 at 10 and 12 mpi, respectively) and at the terminal stage of the disease (cattle identification codes 528, 1061, and 5566 at 16 mpi). A wide range of tissues was sampled at subsequent necropsy. We provisionally categorized the adrenal gland as nerve tissue because of the presence of chromaffin cells in the medulla of the gland.
Western blot analysis for PrPres was performed on obex tissue samples as described previously by using anti-PrP monoclonal antibody T2 (9). PrPres was detectable in all obex samples obtained 10, 12, and 16 mpi, suggesting that transmission of L-type BSE prions to these animals was successful. Dilution of the protease-treated brain sample and analysis of Western blot results showed that the detection threshold for PrPres was 1.25 μg of brain tissue equivalent (data not shown).
Figure 1
Figure 1.
Figure 1. Western blot analysis of a protease-resistant form (PrPres) of a normal cellular prion protein in nerve tissue samples obtained from cattle 10 (A) and 16 (B) months postinoculation (cattle identification codes 8515 and 1061, respectively)...
 
Figure 2
Figure 2.
Figure 2. Bioassay using nerve tissues obtained from bovine spongiform encephalopathy JP24 prion-inoculated cattle...
A variety of nerve and lymphoid tissue samples were investigated for accumulation of PrPres by Western blot analysis by using phosphotungstic acid precipitation, as described previously (10); examples of cattle tissue samples obtained 10 and 16 months mpi (codes 8515 and 1061, respectively) are shown in Figure 1. In cattle at the preclinical stage, PrPres was detectable in all tested ganglia and barely detectable in the vagus nerve and vagosympathic trunk. In cattle at the terminal stage, PrPres was barely detectable in the forelimb nerves (suprascapular nerve, brachial nerve plexus, median nerve, and radial nerve), whereas substantial amounts of PrPres were present in other nerve tissues except for facial and hypoglossal nerves (Table). A broader nerve tissue distribution of PrPres was observed in cattle at 16 mpi than at 10 and 12 mpi. Contrary to what we found in nerve tissues, we detected no PrPres from tests performed on lymphoid tissues obtained from any of the 5 cattle studied.
Infectivity of selected nerve tissues (including the obex, sciatic nerve, adrenal gland, brachial nerve plexus, and vagus nerve) obtained from cattle euthanized at 10, 12, and 16 mpi (codes 8515, 498, and 5566, respectively) was analyzed by intracerebral injection into mice transgenic for bovine prion protein, as described previously (11). As a negative control, mice were injected with cells from the brainstem of a normal cow. The presence of PrPres in the brains of all mice used in the experiment was determined by Western blot analysis. Infectivity was detected in all nerve tissues tested, regardless of the presence of detectable PrPres (Figure 2). Control mice showed no apparent abnormality >500 days postinoculation.

Conclusions

We report accumulation of L-type atypical BSE prions in peripheral nerve tissues sampled from intracerebrally challenged cattle. Our study demonstrated that almost all of the peripheral nerve tissues tested became PrPres positive in a time-dependent manner, whereas no PrPres was detectable in lymphoid tissues, even in cattle with fatal atypical BSE. Our results suggest the possibility that, like classical BSE prions, L-type BSE prions propagated in the central nervous system and were spread centrifugally by nerve pathways (11,12). In Italy, L-type BSE prions have been characterized in detail by using cattle challenged intracerebrally. However, PrPres was not detected in their peripheral tissues, including the peripheral nerves (13). The reason for the discrepancy in PrPres detection is unclear. In view of the similarities between the L-type and BSE/JP24 prion characteristics (9), this discrepancy may result from differences in the methods used for PrPres detection.
We detected infectivity in the nerve tissue samples (including samples from the obex, sciatic nerve, adrenal gland, brachial nerve plexus, and vagus nerve) obtained 10, 12, and 16 mpi. On the basis of the incubation time of 223 ± 25 (mean ± SD) days in mice injected with a 1,000-fold dilution of the obex homogenate, infectious titers in peripheral nerve tissues appeared to be 1,000 × lower than those estimated in the obex during endpoint titration of infectivity.
Our results demonstrate that L-type atypical BSE prions can be distributed in the peripheral nerve tissues of intracerebrally challenged cattle. These findings are useful for understanding L-type BSE pathogenesis and accurately assessing the risks associated with this disease. Investigations of prion distribution in cattle that have been orally challenged with L-type BSE prions are critical.

Acknowledgments

We are grateful to Naoko Tabeta, Yuko Miyama, and Mariko Issiki for technical assistance. We also thank the animal caretakers.
This work was supported in part by a Grant-in-Aid from the BSE and other Prion Disease Control Projects from the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry, and Fisheries of Japan and by a grant for BSE research from the Ministry of Health, Labor, and Welfare of Japan.
Dr Iwamaru is a veterinarian and senior researcher with the Prion Disease Research Center, National Institute of Animal Health. His research focuses on the molecular mechanisms underlying neurodegenaration in prion diseases.

References

  1. Ducrot C, Arnold M, de Koeijer A, Heim D, Calavas D. Review on the epidemiology and dynamics of BSE epidemics. Vet Res. 2008;39:15. PubMed DOI
  2. Jacobs JG, Langeveld JP, Biacabe AG, Acutis PL, Polak MP, Gavier-Widen D, et al. Molecular discrimination of atypical bovine spongiform encephalopathy strains from a geographical region spanning a wide area in Europe. J Clin Microbiol. 2007;45:1821–9. PubMed DOI
  3. Brown P, McShane LM, Zanusso G, Detwile L. On the question of sporadic or atypical bovine spongiform encephalopathy and Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease. Emerg Infect Dis. 2006;12:1816–21.
  4. Hill AF, Desbruslais M, Joiner S, Sidle KC, Gowland I, Collinge J, et al. The same prion strain causes vCJD and BSE. Nature. 1997;389:448–50, 526. PubMed DOI
  5. Bruce ME, Will RG, Ironside JW, McConnell I, Drummond D, Suttie A, et al. Transmissions to mice indicate that 'new variant' CJD is caused by the BSE agent. Nature. 1997;389:498–501. PubMed DOI
  6. Comoy EE, Casalone C, Lescoutra-Etchegaray N, Zanusso G, Freire S, Marce D, et al. Atypical BSE (BASE) transmitted from asymptomatic aging cattle to a primate. PLoS One. 2008;3:e3017. PubMedDOI
  7. Kong Q, Zheng M, Casalone C, Qing L, Huang S, Chakraborty B, et al. Evaluation of the human transmission risk of an atypical bovine spongiform encephalopathy prion strain. J Virol. 2008;82:3697–701. PubMed DOI
  8. Hagiwara K, Yamakawa Y, Sato Y, Nakamura Y, Tobiume M, Shinagawa M, et al. Accumulation of mono-glycosylated form-rich, plaque-forming PrPSc in the second atypical bovine spongiform encephalopathy case in Japan. Jpn J Infect Dis. 2007;60:305–8.
  9. Fukuda S, Iwamaru Y, Imamura M, Masujin K, Shimizu Y, Matsuura Y, et al. Intraspecies transmission of L-type-like bovine spongiform encephalopathy detected in Japan. Microbiol Immunol. 2009;53:704–7. PubMed DOI
  10. Shimada K, Hayashi HK, Ookubo Y, Iwamaru Y, Imamura M, Takata M, et al. Rapid PrP(Sc) detection in lymphoid tissue and application to scrapie surveillance of fallen stock in Japan: variable PrP(Sc) accumulation in palatal tonsil in natural scrapie. Microbiol Immunol. 2005;49:801–4.
  11. Masujin K, Matthews D, Wells GA, Mohri S, Yokoyama T. Prions in the peripheral nerves of bovine spongiform encephalopathy–affected cattle. J Gen Virol. 2007;88:1850–8. PubMed DOI
  12. Hoffmann C, Ziegler U, Buschmann A, Weber A, Kupfer L, Oelschlegel A, et al. Prions spread via the autonomic nervous system from the gut to the central nervous system in cattle incubating bovine spongiform encephalopathy. J Gen Virol. 2007;88:1048–55. PubMed DOI
  13. Lombardi G, Casalone C, D'Angelo A, Gelmetti D, Torcoli G, Barbieri I, et al. Intraspecies transmission of BASE induces clinical dullness and amyotrophic changes. PLoS Pathog. 2008;4:e1000075. PubMed DOI

Figures


Table

Suggested Citation for this Article

Imamura YIM, Matsuura Y, Masujin K, Shimizu Y, Shu Y, Kurachi M, et al. Accumulation of L-type bovine prions in peripheral nerve tissues. Emerg Infect Dis [serial on the Internet]. 2010 Jul [date cited]. http://www.cdc.gov/EID/content/16/7/1151.htm
DOI: 10.3201/eid1607.091882

domingo, 25 de abril de 2010

EET's - Encefalopatias Espongiformes Transmissíveis - VÍDEOS

VEJA OS VÍDEOS EM SEUS RESPECTIVOS LINKS:


Prions:







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Creudsfeldt-Jacob:








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